ORIGINAL PAPER
Fear of childbirth and social support in women with and without previous traumatic pregnancy or birth experiences
1
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
Submission date: 2025-12-23
Final revision date: 2026-06-11
Acceptance date: 2026-06-17
Online publication date: 2026-07-24
Corresponding author
Sanda Pletikosić Tončić
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
KEYWORDS
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
Background:
Fear of childbirth (FOC) is a prevalent psychological concern with implications for maternal well-being and obstetric out-comes. Although previous traumatic pregnancy or birth experiences and perceived social support are recognized correlates of FOC, their combined effects remain underexplored. This study investigated whether previous traumatic pregnancy or birth experiences moderate the association between perceived social support and FOC among pregnant women.
Participants and procedure:
The sample comprised 152 pregnant women (aged 22-42 years, M = 32.32, SD = 4.39) recruited online and through gynaeco-logical clinics across Croatia. Participants completed the Wijma Delivery Expectancy/Experience Questionnaire-Version A (W-DEQ-A), the Social Support Appraisals Scale, and the Partner Support Scale. Previous traumatic pregnancy or birth experience was assessed via a single self-report item. Multiple linear regression models tested the main and interaction ef-fects of social support and prior trauma on FOC, controlling for age and gestational week.
Results:
Greater perceived family support was associated with lower FOC scores (p < .001). Women reporting a previous traumatic experience showed significantly higher FOC than those without such experiences (p < .001). The interaction between trau-ma history and family support was significant (p < .05), such that family support exerted a protective effect among women with prior trauma, but not among women without prior trauma. The effect of partner support was not significant.
Conclusions:
The findings suggest that social support, particularly from family, may be relevant to childbirth-related fear in women with prior traumatic pregnancy or birth experiences. Assessing such previous experiences and considering the role of supportive family communication may represent potential components of preventive approaches aimed at addressing FOC and promoting perinatal wellbeing.
Fear of childbirth (FOC) is a prevalent psychological concern with implications for maternal well-being and obstetric out-comes. Although previous traumatic pregnancy or birth experiences and perceived social support are recognized correlates of FOC, their combined effects remain underexplored. This study investigated whether previous traumatic pregnancy or birth experiences moderate the association between perceived social support and FOC among pregnant women.
Participants and procedure:
The sample comprised 152 pregnant women (aged 22-42 years, M = 32.32, SD = 4.39) recruited online and through gynaeco-logical clinics across Croatia. Participants completed the Wijma Delivery Expectancy/Experience Questionnaire-Version A (W-DEQ-A), the Social Support Appraisals Scale, and the Partner Support Scale. Previous traumatic pregnancy or birth experience was assessed via a single self-report item. Multiple linear regression models tested the main and interaction ef-fects of social support and prior trauma on FOC, controlling for age and gestational week.
Results:
Greater perceived family support was associated with lower FOC scores (p < .001). Women reporting a previous traumatic experience showed significantly higher FOC than those without such experiences (p < .001). The interaction between trau-ma history and family support was significant (p < .05), such that family support exerted a protective effect among women with prior trauma, but not among women without prior trauma. The effect of partner support was not significant.
Conclusions:
The findings suggest that social support, particularly from family, may be relevant to childbirth-related fear in women with prior traumatic pregnancy or birth experiences. Assessing such previous experiences and considering the role of supportive family communication may represent potential components of preventive approaches aimed at addressing FOC and promoting perinatal wellbeing.
REFERENCES (84)
1.
Alemu, C., Wudu, H., & Lakew, S. (2024). Fear of childbirth and its associated factors among pregnant women in Dejen Woreda, East Gojjam Zone, Northwest Ethiopia: a community-based cross-sectional study. Scientific Reports, 14, 9319. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598....
2.
Alizadeh-Dibazari, Z., Maghalian, M., & Mirghafourvand, M. (2025). The relationship between perceived social support and fear of childbirth in pregnant women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychology, 13, 709. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359....
3.
Ayers, S., Wright, D. B., & Thornton, A. (2018). Development of a measure of postpartum PTSD: The City Birth Trauma Scale. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 409. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.....
4.
Azimi, M., Fahami, F., & Mohamadirizi, S. (2018). The relationship between perceived social support in the first pregnancy and fear of childbirth. Iranian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research, 23, 235–239. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijnmr.....
5.
Beck, C. T. (2004). Birth trauma: In the eye of the beholder. Nursing Research, 53, 28–35. https://doi.org/10.1097/000061....
6.
Beck, C. T. (2015). Middle range theory of traumatic childbirth: The ever-widening ripple effect. Global Qualitative Nursing Research, 2, 2333393615575313. https://doi.org/10.1177/233339....
7.
Böhnke, P. (2008). Are the poor socially integrated? The link between poverty and social support in different wel-fare regimes. Journal of European Social Policy, 18, 133–150. https://doi.org/10.1177/095892....
8.
Brekalo, M., Kuljanac, A., & Nakić Radoš, S. (2024). Intolerance of uncertainty and fear of childbirth: Role of per-ceived preparedness for childbirth. Clínica y Salud, 35, 35–38. https://doi.org/10.5093/clysa2....
9.
Calderani, E., Giardinelli, L., Scannerini, S., Arcabasso, S., Compagno, E., Petraglia, F., & Ricca, V. (2019). To-cophobia in the DSM-5 era: Outcomes of a new cut-off analysis of the Wijma Delivery Expectancy/Experience Questionnaire based on clinical presentation. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 116, 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsy....
10.
Calpbinici, P., Terzioglu, F., & Koc, G. (2023). The relationship of perceived social support, personality traits, and self-esteem of pregnant women with the fear of childbirth. Health Care for Women International, 44, 1423–1437. https://doi.org/10.1080/073993....
11.
Challacombe, F. L., Nath, S., Trevillion, K., Pawlby, S., & Howard, L. M. (2021). Fear of childbirth during pregnan-cy: Associations with observed mother–infant interactions and perceived bonding. Archives of Women’s Men-tal Health, 24, 483–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737....
12.
Çıtak Bilgin, N., Coşkun, H., Coşkuner Potur, D., İbar Aydın, E., & Uca, E. (2021). Psychosocial predictors of the fear of childbirth in Turkish pregnant women. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 42, 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/016748....
13.
Cobb, S. (1976). Social support as a moderator of life stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 38, 300–314. https://doi.org/10.1097/000068....
14.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310–357. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2....
15.
Dencker, A., Nilsson, C., Begley, C., Jangsten, E., Mollberg, M., Patel, H., Wigert, H., Hessman, E., & Sjöblom, H. (2018). Causes and outcomes in studies of fear of childbirth: a systematic review. Women and Birth, 32, 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.womb....
16.
Deng, Y., Lin, Y., Yang, L., Liang, Q., Fu, B., Li, H., Zhang, H., & Liu, Y. (2021). A comparison of maternal fear of childbirth, labor pain intensity and intrapartum analgesic consumption between primiparas and multiparas: a cross-sectional study. International Journal of Nursing Sciences, 8, 380–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijns....
17.
Dikmen-Yildiz, P., Ayers, S., & Phillips, L. (2018). Longitudinal trajectories of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after birth and associated risk factors. Journal of Affective Disorders, 229, 377–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.....
18.
Dunkel Schetter, C. (2011). Psychological science on pregnancy: Stress processes, biopsychosocial models, and emerging research issues. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 531–558. https://doi.org/10.1146/annure....
19.
Dobrotić, I., & Laklija, M. (2012) Obrasci društvenosti i percepcija izvora neformalne socijalne podrške u Hrvatskoj [Patterns of sociability and the perception of sources of informal social support in Croatia] Društvena istraživanja, 21, 39–58. https://doi.org/10.5559/di.21.....
20.
Edmonds, J. K., Paul, M., & Sibley, L. M. (2011). Type, content, and source of social support perceived by women during pregnancy: Evidence from Matlab, Bangladesh. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 29, 163–173. https://doi.org/10.3329/jhpn.v....
21.
Elvander, C., Cnattingius, S., & Kjerulff, K. H. (2013). Birth experience in women with low, intermediate or high levels of fear: Findings from the first baby study. Birth, 40, 289–296. https://doi.org/10.1111/birt.1....
22.
Ertan, D., Hingray, C., Burlacu, E., Sterlé, A., & El-Hage, W. (2021). Post-traumatic stress disorder following child-birth. BMC Psychiatry, 21, 155. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888....
23.
European Parliament (2021). Report on the situation of sexual and reproductive health and rights in the EU, in the frame of women’s health (2020/2215(INI)) (Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality, Rapporteur P. F. Matić). Retrieved from https://respectfulcare.eu/wp-c....
24.
European Parliament, Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs. (2024). Obstetric and gy-naecological violence in the EU – prevalence, legal frameworks and educational guidelines for prevention and elim-ination (Study No. PE 761.478). Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu....
25.
Gulacti, F. (2010). The effect of perceived social support on subjective well-being. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 3844–3849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbsp....
26.
Haines, H. M., Pallant, J. F., Karlström, A., & Hildingsson, I. (2011). Cross-cultural comparison of levels of child-birth fear in an Australian and Swedish sample. Midwifery, 27, 560–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw....
27.
Hall, W. A., Hauck, Y. L., Carty, E. M., Hutton, E. K., Fenwick, J., & Stoll, K. (2009). Childbirth fear, anxiety, fatigue, and sleep deprivation in pregnant women. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 38, 567–576. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1552....
28.
Hall, W. A., Stoll, K., Hutton, E. K., & Brown, H. (2012). A prospective study of effects of psychological factors and sleep on obstetric interventions, mode of birth, and neonatal outcomes among low-risk British Columbian women. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 12, 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2....
29.
Handelzalts, J. E., Kalfon-Hakhmigari, M., Raichin, A., & Peled, Y. (2024). Postpartum acute stress disorder symp-toms, social support, and quality of couple’s relationship associations with childbirth PTSD. Frontiers in Psy-chiatry, 15, 1310114. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.....
30.
Hasani, S., Bahrami, N., Heidarifard, S., & Alimoardi, Z. (2025). The mediating role of psychological birth trauma in the association between childbirth satisfaction and the desire to avoid pregnancy among Iranian postpartum women. Midwifery, 151, 104636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw....
31.
Heyne, C. S., Kazmierczak, M., Souday, R., Horesh, D., Lambregtse-van den Berg, M., Weigl, T., Horsch, A., Oosterman, M., Dikmen-Yildiz, P., & Garthus-Niegel, S. (2022). Prevalence and risk factors of birth-related posttraumatic stress among parents: a comparative systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 94, 102157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.....
32.
Holopainen, A., Stramrood, C., van Pampus, M. G., Hollander, M., & Schuengel, C. (2020). Subsequent childbirth after previous traumatic birth experience: Women’s choices and evaluations. British Journal of Midwifery, 28, 2–10. https://doi.org/10.12968/bjom.....
33.
Horakova, A., Nemcova, H., Hrdlickova, K., Kalli, S., Davletova, A., Duarte, M. F. R. S., Molodina, D., Riekki, T., & Sebela, A. (2024). State of perinatal mental health care in the WHO region of Europe: a scoping review. Fron-tiers in Psychiatry, 15, 1350036. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.....
34.
Hou, Y., Zhou, X., Yao, M., & Liu, S. (2022). Fear of childbirth and its predictors in re-pregnant women after ce-sarean section: a cross-sectional multicenter study in China. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 22, 393. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884....
35.
Hudek-Knežević, J., Krapić, N., & Kardum, I. (2006). Burnout in dispositional context: The role of personality traits, social support, and coping styles. Review of Psychology, 13, 65–73.
36.
Ilska, M., Brandt-Salmeri, A., Kołodziej-Zaleska, A., Banaś, E., Gelner, H., & Cnota, W. (2021). Factors associated with fear of childbirth among Polish pregnant women. Scientific Reports, 11, 4397. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598....
37.
Jing, Q., Jie, J., Ke, X., Liu, Y., Xiumin, D., Xiuchuan, L., & Jinzhi, L. (2025). The relationship between fear of child-birth and prenatal depression in pregnant women during pregnancy: a cross-lagged analysis. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 25, 192. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884....
38.
Jokić-Begić, N., Žigić, L., & Nakić Radoš, S. (2014). Anxiety and anxiety sensitivity as predictors of fear of child-birth: Different patterns for nulliparous and parous women. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 35, 22–28. https://doi.org/10.3109/016748....
39.
Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. H. (2008). Longitudinal linkages between perceived social support and posttraumatic stress symptoms: Sequential roles of social causation and social selection. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21, 274–281. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20....
40.
Kuljanac, A., Brekalo, M., & Naki Radoš, S. (2023). Perfectionism, intolerance of uncertainty, and fear of child-birth in pregnant and non-pregnant women. Clínica y Salud, 34, 65–70. https://doi.org/10.5093/clysa2....
42.
Lukasse, M., Schei, B., & Ryding, E. L. (2014). Prevalence and associated factors of fear of childbirth in six Euro-pean countries. Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare, 5, 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc....
43.
Miller, Y. D., & Danoy-Monet, M. (2021). Reproducing fear: The effect of birth stories on nulligravid women’s birth preferences. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 21, 451. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884....
44.
Nakić, S. (2011). Prediktori razvoja poslijeporođajne depresije [Predictors of postpartum depression] [Un-published doctoral dissertation]. Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb.
45.
Nakić Radoš, S., Matijaš, M., Kuhar, L., Anđelinović, M., & Ayers, S. (2019). Measuring and conceptualizing PTSD following childbirth: Validation of the City Birth Trauma Scale. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Prac-tice, and Policy, 12, 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra000....
46.
Nakić Radoš, S., Žigić Antić, L., & Jokić-Begić, N. (2022). The role of personality traits and delivery experience in fear of childbirth: a prospective study. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 29, 750–759. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10880....
47.
Nakić Radoš, S., Brekalo, M., Žutić, M., Matijaš, M., Habek, D., Marton, I., Tikvica Luetić, A., Prka, M., Ujević, B., Štefulj, J., Pačić-Turk, L., Čivljak, M., Bošnjaković, J., Čartolovni, A., & Ayers, S. (2026). Prospective study of individual characteristics and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms following childbirth: Birth satis-faction as a moderator. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 18, 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra000....
48.
Nieminen, K., Stephansson, O., & Ryding, E. L. (2009). Women’s fear of childbirth and preference for cesarean section – a cross-sectional study at various stages of pregnancy in Sweden. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 88, 807–813. https://doi.org/10.1080/000163....
49.
Nilsson, C., Hessman, E., Sjöblom, H., Dencker, A., Jangsten, E., Mollberg, M., Patel, H., Wigert, H., & Begley, C. (2018). Definitions, measurements, and prevalence of fear of childbirth: a systematic review. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 18, 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884....
50.
Nowak, A. L., Braungart-Rieker, J. M., & Kuo, P. X. (2022). Social support moderates the relation between child-hood trauma and prenatal depressive symptoms in adolescent mothers. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 40, 644–658. https://doi.org/10.1080/026468....
51.
O’Connell, M. A., Leahy-Warren, P., Khashan, A. S., Kenny, L. C., & O’Neill, S. M. (2017). Worldwide prevalence of tocophobia in pregnant women: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scan-dinavica, 96, 907–920. https://doi.org/10.1111/aogs.1....
52.
Olsen, B., Forgaard, A., Salmi Nordsletta, A. H., Sommerseth, E., & Røseth, I. (2022). “I shut it out”: Expectant mothers’ fear of childbirth after a traumatic birth – a phenomenological study. International Journal of Qualita-tive Studies on Health and Well-being, 17, 2101209. https://doi.org/10.1080/174826....
53.
Pidd, D., Newton, M., Wilson, I., & East, C. (2023). Optimising maternity care for a subsequent pregnancy after a psychologically traumatic birth: a scoping review. Women and Birth, 36, e471–e480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.womb....
54.
R Core Team (2025). R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Compu-ting. Retrieved from https://www.R-project.org/.
55.
Rachman, S. (1977). The conditioning theory of fear-acquisition: a critical examination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15, 375–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7....
56.
Räisänen, S., Lehto, S. M., Nielsen, H. S., Gissler, M., Kramer, M. R., & Heinonen, S. (2014). Fear of childbirth in nulliparous and multiparous women: a population-based analysis of all singleton births in Finland in 1997-2010. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 121, 965–970. https://doi.org/10.1111/147105....
57.
Revelle, W. (2024). psych: Procedures for psychological, psychometric, and personality research. Northwestern Uni-versity. Retrieved from https://CRAN.R-project.org/pac....
58.
RODA (2023). Action plan for women’s reproductive health. Retrieved from https://www.roda.hr/media/atta....
59.
Rondung, E., Thomtén, J., & Sundin, Ö. (2016). Psychological perspectives on fear of childbirth. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 44, 80–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janx....
60.
Rouhe, H., Salmela-Aro, K., Halmesmäki, E., & Saisto, T. (2009). Fear of childbirth according to parity, gestational age, and obstetric history. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 116, 67–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471....
61.
Rouhe, H., Salmela-Aro, K., Gissler, M., Halmesmäki, E., & Saisto, T. (2011). Mental health problems common in women with fear of childbirth. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 118, 1104–1111. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471....
62.
Ryding, E. L., Lukasse, M., Parys, A. S., Wangel, A. M., Karro, H., Kristjansdottir, H., Schroll, A. M., Schei, B., & Bidens Group (2015). Fear of childbirth and risk of cesarean delivery: a cohort study in six European coun-tries. Birth, 42, 48–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/birt.1....
63.
Seto, N., Tahara-Sasagawa, E., Yonezawa, K., Hikita, N., Usui, Y., & Haruna, M. (2024). The association between fear of childbirth and social support through the Internet and social networking services in pregnant women: a cross-sectional study. Nursing & Health Sciences, 26, e13082. https://doi.org/10.1111/nhs.13....
64.
Skalski-Bednarz, S. B., Loichen, T., Toussaint, L., Mendrek, A., Konaszewski, K., & Surzykiewicz, J. (2026). The moderating roles of social support and spirituality in the relationship between complicated grief and quality of life among women who have experienced pregnancy loss. Health Psychology Report, 14, 24–38. https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr/19....
65.
Söderquist, J., Wijma, K., & Wijma, B. (2004). Traumatic stress in late pregnancy. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18, 127–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-....
66.
Spice, K., Jones, S. L., Hadjistavropoulos, H. D., Kowalyk, K., & Stewart, S. H. (2009). Prenatal fear of childbirth and anxiety sensitivity. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 30, 168–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/016748....
67.
Stoll, K. (2012). Fear of childbirth among young Canadians [Doctoral dissertation]. University of British Columbia. https://doi.org/10.14288/1.007....
68.
Størksen, H. T., Garthus‐Niegel, S., Vangen, S., & Eberhard‐Gran, M. (2013). The impact of previous birth experi-ences on maternal fear of childbirth. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 92, 318–324. https://doi.org/10.1111/aogs.1....
69.
Tavares, D. S. M., Figueiredo, B., & Canário, C. (2025). History of mental health problems moderates the associa-tion between partner support during childbirth and women’s mental health in the postpartum period. Mid-wifery, 130, 104359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw....
70.
Thomson, G., & Downe, S. (2008). Widening the trauma discourse: The link between childbirth and experiences of abuse. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 29, 268–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/016748....
71.
Vaajala, M., Liukkonen, R., Kuitunen, I., Ponkilainen, V., Mattila, V. M., & Kekki, M. (2023). Trends in the epide-miology of fear of childbirth and association with intended mode of delivery: a nationwide register-based co-hort study in Finland. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 102, 430–437. https://doi.org/10.1111/aogs.1....
72.
Vaux, A., Phillips, J., Holly, L., Thomson, B., Williams, D., & Stewart, D. (1986). The Social Support Appraisals (SS-A) Scale: Studies of reliability and validity. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 195–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF0091....
73.
Vitek, K., & Ward, L. M. (2018). Risky, dramatic, and unrealistic: Reality television portrayals of pregnancy and childbirth and their effects on women’s fear and self-efficacy. Health Communication, 34, 1289–1295. https://doi.org/10.1080/104102....
74.
Wijma, K. (2003). Why focus on ‘fear of childbirth’? Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 24, 141–143. https://doi.org/10.3109/016748....
75.
Wijma, K., Ryding, E. L., & Wijma, B. (2002). Predicting psychological well-being after emergency caesarean sec-tion: a preliminary study. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 20, 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/026468....
76.
Wijma, K., Wijma, B., & Zar, M. (1998). Psychometric aspects of the W-DEQ: a new questionnaire for the meas-urement of fear of childbirth. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 19, 84–97. https://doi.org/10.3109/016748....
77.
Yin, A., Shi, Y., Heinonen, S., Räisänen, S., Fang, W., Jiang, H., & Chen, A. (2024). The impact of fear of childbirth on mode of delivery, postpartum mental health and breastfeeding: a prospective cohort study in Shanghai, China. Journal of Affective Disorders, 347, 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.....
78.
Zamani, P., Ziaie, T., Lakeh, N. M., & Leili, E. K. (2019). The correlation between perceived social support and childbirth experience in pregnant women. Midwifery, 75, 146–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw....
79.
Zar, M., Wijma, K., & Wijma, B. (2001). Pre- and postpartum fear of childbirth in nulliparous and parous women. Scandinavian Journal of Behaviour Therapy, 30, 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/028457....
80.
Žigić Antić, L., Nakić Radoš, S., & Jokić-Begić, N. (2018). Are non-pregnant women afraid of childbirth? Preva-lence and predictors of fear of childbirth in students. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 40, 226–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/016748....
81.
Žigić, L., Nakić, S., & Jokić-Begić, N. (2012). The validation of the Croatian version of the Wijma Delivery Expectan-cy/Experience Questionnaire [Conference presentation]. 18th Psychology Days in Zadar (Symposium: Repro-ductive Mental Health), Zadar, Croatia, May 24-26.
82.
Zhang, T., Liu, M., Min, F., Wei, W., Liu, Y., Tong, J., Meng, Q., Sun, L., & Chen, X. (2023). Fear of childbirth and its determinants in pregnant women in the third trimester: a cross-sectional study. BMC Psychiatry, 23, 574. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888....
83.
Zhou, X., Liu, H., Li, X., & Zhang, S. (2021). Fear of childbirth and associated risk factors in healthy pregnant women in northwest of China: a cross-sectional study. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 14, 731–741. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S....
84.
Zuckerman, M. (1999). Diathesis–stress models. In M. Zuckerman (Ed.), Vulnerability to psychopathology: a biosocial model (pp. 3–23). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10316-....
Copyright: © Institute of Psychology, University of Gdansk This is an Open Access journal, all articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license.
Share
RELATED ARTICLE
| eISSN: | 2353-5571 |
| ISSN: | 2353-4184 |
We process personal data collected when visiting the website. The function of obtaining information about users and their behavior is carried out by voluntarily entered information in forms and saving cookies in end devices. Data, including cookies, are used to provide services, improve the user experience and to analyze the traffic in accordance with the Privacy policy. Data are also collected and processed by Google Analytics tool (more).
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
